Oil and oil products are a part of our daily lives. Modern American society could not function without the benefits derived from the extraction and refinement of oil. How much do we really know about this critical resource?

2. What’s in a barrel?

We use oil for more than just powering our cars and heating our homes. Once the crude oil comes out of the ground, it is sent to a refinery and turned into an amazing variety of products. An average 42-gallon barrel of oil can only produce about 19 gallons of gasoline. The other 23 gallons yield other fuels, plastics, and byproducts from the refining process.

PHOTO CREDIT: Info graphic designed by Brendan Daly. For a larger file of this image, look to the resource, “From One Barrel of Oil Infographic.” 

Today in Alaska, the vast majority of oil from the state’s Arctic region comes from on-shore drilling wells. Most of the oil comes from the ‘North Slope,’ referring to the land adjacent to the Chukchi and Beaufort Seas down to the Brooks Mountain Range (the area of land depicted on the map above). Prudhoe Bay Oil Field (near Deadhorse) is the most productive of the areas in the North Slope, but various industries have leases all along the coastline. Currently, the oil is brought to the sub-Arctic via the Trans-Alaska Pipeline. This pipeline starts at Prudhoe Bay and runs over 800 miles down through Alaska to Valdez, where it is loaded onto ships for transportation to refineries outside of Alaska.

Oil production from wells on the North Slope peaked in the late 1980s and has been steadily declining ever since. This decline is due to many factors: geophysical, commercial, and/or political. Additionally, reduced oil production on land spurs exploration that is riskier (both for the environment and corporate investment) towards off-shore reserves.

Until very recently, the Arctic has been closed to off-shore oil exploration and drilling because of sea ice. With the changes in the Arctic Ocean, Beaufort, and Chukchi Seas due to global climate change and the loss of sea ice, corporations are able to extend their ice-free season and find oil reserves in previously unknown locations.

How much oil is in the Arctic? The US Geological Survey estimates that the area north of the Arctic Circle holds 13% of the world’s undiscovered oil and 30% of undiscovered natural gas. Of those resources, 84% lie offshore. The United States’ offshore claims only lie in the Chukchi Sea, Beaufort Sea, and a part of the Arctic Ocean. Accessing these oil reserves will require oil rigs in marine environments, but only in depths of around 150 feet of water. For comparison, the Deepwater Horizon rig was drilling under about 5,000ft of water. While the Arctic environment provides many hazards, the relatively shallow water depths allows for drill technology that has been in place for decades.

Data from: http://www.doi.gov/news/pressreleases/upload/Shell-report-3-8-13-Final.pdf

PHOTO CREDIT: USGS, 2011/BOEM, 2008: http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2011/3048/ Map of the North Slope of Alaska from Point Hope to the United States–Canada border.

The impacts of climate change are already evident in the Arctic. As stated in a 2011 USGS report evaluating oil exploration in the Arctic, “Climate change is impacting physical, biological, and social conditions in the Arctic and affecting all resource-management strategies. Climate conditions in the Arctic have been undergoing remarkable changes, particularly during the last 20 years.”

One of these remarkable changes was observed in 2012: the lowest level of Arctic sea ice retreat on record. Sea ice retreat is more complex than ice simply covering less surface area than before. While ice coverage has declined by 40% since satellite data began in 1979, over that same period the ice has thinned in volume by more than 70%. In the light of the measurements from 2012, scientists are now changing their predictions on the date for the complete loss of summer sea ice. Once that date was thought to be by the end of this century; conservative estimates now have that event occurring by mid-century. The most pessimistic estimates predict we could see a summer free of ice by the end of the decade.

Loss of sea ice cover and volume equates to longer portions of the year when commercial opportunities are viable. Two industries will benefit from this prospect. Oil producers are one. Lack of ice will allow for the exploration of new oil fields and the installation of oil rigs that will extract crude oil from off-shore sites.

Trans-continental shippers will benefit also, as routes like the Northwest Passage (NWP), Northern Sea Route (NSR), and, potentially, the Transpolar Sea Route (TSR) open up for a longer portion of the year. For the first time in modern human history, the fabled Northwest Passage may soon become an annual reality. As the extent of Arctic sea ice continues to recede farther and farther from the various continental shelves, for longer stretches of the year, the entire region is opening up to commercial possibilities.

There are several resources for this lesson. Many focus on statistics about changing sea ice extent while others describe political and economic potential for the changing Arctic. Look for key words in the resource summaries to find the resources that match your need.

PHOTO CREDIT: The Arctic Institute: http://www.thearcticinstitute.org/p/maps.html

Oil spills come in a variety of types and severities. While no one wants to see an oil spill happen, the reality is that they do, and in large numbers. In 2010, the Environmental Protection Agency, in testimony about oil spill prevention, stated that “approximately 20,000 oil spills are reported each year to the federal government” (click here for the EPA testimony). These spills range in size from a few gallons leaking out of a small boat or sunken ship to millions of gallons from huge tankers or ruptured pipelines. While the majority of oil released into water arises from anthropogenic sources, there are also natural oil seeps that can release thousands of gallons into the ocean.

Two of the larger spills in U.S. waters were the 1989 Exxon Valdez oil tanker spill in Alaska and the 2010 Deep Water Horizon offshore platform well-head blowout in the Gulf of Mexico. Both spills were major environmental disasters, but they didn’t behave in the same way. Factors such as geographic location, currents, the weight of the oil, and the temperature of the water impacted the ways in which the released oil interacted with the local environment and the clean-up operations.

The list above is not exhaustive. Other facts affecting the possible behavior and impacts of an oil spill include climate, remoteness, native wildlife, and human proximity. While some spills are the result of negligent or deliberate actions, the majority of them are the result of accidents. We need to prepare for these accidents so that a quick and coordinated response effectively mitigates the potential impacts on the environment and society.

PHOTO CREDIT: US Navy: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Exxon_Valdez_Cleanup.jpg Oil spill cleanup from Exxon Valdez, May 1989.

WHAT ARE THE ANTICIPATED IMPACTS OF AN OIL SPILL IN THE ARCTIC?

A spill in the Arctic Ocean will be something quite different from the spills industry and government agencies are accustomed to responding to. A number of factors make the Arctic environment both potentially beneficial for oil spill cleanup and also much more difficult to respond to.

BSEE (Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement) marks sea ice as the most difficult obstacle to offshore Arctic drilling. Ice could create a spill by putting pressure on offshore oil platforms and pipelines that run along the seafloor. Then, in the event of a spill, ice can restrict the use of certain tools like booms and require more equipment, for example, equipment to find and remove oil from under the ice. One benefit of sea ice is that it can act as a natural retainer and slow the spread of oil, even without the use of booms.

Oil can affect animals living anywhere from the seafloor to the seashore. The Arctic Ocean and its coastlines are not a barren wasteland; they provide habitat to many species. In the summer, the Arctic experiences nearly 24 hours of daylight, allowing for great plant growth and huge algae blooms. Migratory birds and marine mammals take advantage of this feast every year. Besides a spill, the construction and operation of drills, boats and transportation gear could affect wildlife through increased human interaction and noise disturbances.

Likewise, the communities in the Arctic would be affected by a spill and the increased shipping, tourism, and exploratory drilling available in a changing Arctic. An increase of industry, including increased transportation, infrastructure, and potential accidents could yield a degradation of water quality and overall environmental health. There are several subsistence communities in the Arctic which depend on marine mammals and other natural resources. Shifts in the health of the marine ecosystem could affect cultural traditions and food sources. However, on the flip-side, increased commercial activity in the Arctic will lead to more infrastructure growth and construction, production, and service-related job opportunities for the peoples who call the Arctic region home.

PHOTO CREDIT: NOAA, 2011, Illustration by Kate Sweeney. Look in the resources for a larger file. 

WHAT IS THE ROLE OF RESEARCH IN PREPARATION AND RESPONSE TO AN OIL SPILL?

Understanding the dynamics of an oil spill and the environment in which it occurs is essential to an effective response and recovery. Oil spill preparedness has come a long way since the 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill. For example, after the Exxon Valdez spill, the use of double-hulled tankers became mandatory. To better anticipate and understand the effects of oil spills, the Exxon Valdez incident also highlighted the importance of baseline data for shoreline and wildlife conditions. Before 1989, no one could really describe “normal” conditions and trends in the Gulf of Alaska. Some impacts of the spill were easy to see; for example, when megafauna were covered in oil. However, no one was sure how the longer-term systems of the local marine area were impacted by the Valdez spill. And, therefore, no one was sure what needed to be restored, how, and on what timeline. The baseline studies of the past 20 years will help us understand what needs to be protected and/or restored in the case of any future emergencies in the Gulf of Alaska. Baseline studies also help researchers to watch for important indicators of change in the environment. Another significant and positive legacy of the 1989 spill is the concept of describing ecosystems. Researchers no longer study a species without trying to understand the factors impacting that species, as well as the ways in which that species impacts the rest of the system. Despite these advances, research specific to the Arctic is a relatively recent and growing field. We do not know exactly how such an environmental disaster will affect the Arctic region or how effective response and clean up will be.

The Arctic is a challenging environment. Extreme weather (including cold and low visibility), unpredictable ice, and extreme remoteness are all factors researchers need to consider in preparing for Arctic oil spills. How will oil interact with new ice, old ice, drift ice, pack ice, snow, or cold temperatures? Not only are these tough conditions to work in directly, they are tough conditions to mimic in laboratory settings.

In addition to the challenges of drilling in an extreme climate, researchers also have to grapple with an Arctic region changing more rapidly due to climate change. A 2011 report by the USGS about developing oil in the Arctic Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) expressed the difficulties of preparing for oil spills in light of a lack of information on Arctic conditions and climate change. (Look at the summary of this report linked in the resources.)

The volume of research projects that have been and are being conducted by government agencies, non-governmental organizations, universities, and industry provides a wealth of information. The next four lessons (2.3, 2.4, 2.5, and 2.7) provide many resources to guide you through some of the research from governments (national and international), NGOs, and industry.

As the Arctic opens up to drilling and transportation, maintaining the health of the ecosystem will require research into specific cleanup technologies, prevention strategies, and response drills for Arctic conditions. Additionally, researchers will need to pursue a greater understanding of the Arctic including its people and wildlife. The magnitude of research projects already happening and proposals for future studies show a commitment to and value of the Arctic.

PHOTO CREDIT: NASA/Kathryn Hansen: Two crew members from the USCGC Healy on the Arctic Ocean during NASA’s ICESCAPE mission, which is investigating “Impacts of Climate on Ecosystems and Chemistry of the Arctic Pacific Environment.” (July 12, 2011)

HOWS DO U.S. GOVERNMENT AGENCIES PREPARE FOR AND RESPOND TO AN OIL SPILL?

Federal, state, and local government agencies work together in the event of an oil spill. Well before a spill might occur, these various levels of government are engaged with preventing and preparing for potential spill scenarios. Many federal agencies would be involved in an Arctic oil spill, since marine waters are under federal jurisdiction. Let’s take a look at three federal agencies to get a sense of their missions in regards to oil spills:

1. (USCG) The US Coast Guard is charged with responding to spills, to help coordinate response rather than to bring cleanup equipment. They also help run the National Response Center for reporting oil spills and other pollution events.

2. (BSEE) The Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement’s current strategic goals include forming regulations that will promote safety in regards to exploration and use of the Outer Continental Shelf. BSEE also inspects oil operations and investigates any spills that cause injuries.

3. (USARC) The US Arctic Research Commission works on developing a national Arctic research policy and coordinating local, federal, and international Arctic research (including research on oil spills in Arctic waters).

Looking at these agencies, you will notice multiple goals: response, enforcement, and research. The USCG, BSEE, and USARC focus mainly on these missions, but the extent of what they do in regards to oil spills does not end there. If you look at the resources below and explore each agency’s webpage, you will notice a diversity of responsibilities for each agency. For example, BSEE is engaged with regulations and enforcement, but also helps fund and promote oil spill response research.

The best way to become familiar with the different tasks of government agencies and departments is to dive into the following resources.

PHOTO CREDIT: http://www.defenseimagery.mil/imageRetrieve.action?guid=c6a15924f1b20037… US Coast Guard Cutter near Barrow, Alaska, during Operation Arctic Shield, Aug. 2012.

HOW DO INTERNATIONAL GOVERNMENTAL AGENCIES PREPARE FOR AND RESPOND TO AN OIL SPILL?

What countries surround the Arctic Ocean? Imagine looking at the globe from the North Pole down (or take a look at the map above) and try to locate the eight countries directly surrounding the Arctic. With a lesser volume and extent of sea ice, the Arctic will open up access to oil fields and trade routes for many countries, not solely the ones adjacent to the Arctic Ocean. Prevention of oil spill contamination in this shared natural space is an international affair.

The collective governments of the Arctic region established the Arctic Council in 1996. In May 2013, the countries of the council signed a legally binding Agreement on Cooperation on Marine Oil Pollution Preparedness and Response in the Arctic. The agreement is between Canada, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden, and the United States. The objective of this agreement is to have nations cooperating in preparedness for oil spills in the Arctic so they can protect the marine environment.

PHOTO CREDIT: Jakobsson, M., L. A. Mayer, B. Coakley, J. A. Dowdeswell, S. Forbes, B. Fridman, H. Hodnesdal, R. Noormets, R. Pedersen, M. Rebesco, H.-W. Schenke, Y. Zarayskaya A, D. Accettella, A. Armstrong, R. M. Anderson, P. Bienhoff, A. Camerlenghi, I. Church, M. Edwards, J. V. Gardner, J. K. Hall, B. Hell, O. B. Hestvik, Y. Kristoffersen, C. Marcussen, R. Mohammad, D. Mosher, S. V. Nghiem, M. T. Pedrosa, P. G. Travaglini, and P. Weatherall, The International Bathymetric Chart of the Arctic Ocean (IBCAO) Version 3.0, Geophysical Research Letters. (The map is devoid of sea ice because it is showing ocean depths).

HOW DO NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS PREPARE FOR AND RESPOND TO AN OIL SPILL?

In addition to governmental agencies, there are many institutions preparing to respond to potential oil spills. In Alaska, these non-governmental organizations take up roles or bolster roles unfulfilled by federal agencies. Some aid in the mobilization and training of response teams. Some study Arctic conditions and species to form a baseline of data that would help model the effects of an oil spill in varying conditions. Others are prepared to rescue and rehabilitate marine animals in the event of a spill.

In this lesson, we will focus on two organizations involved with oil spill response in two very different ways:

1. The Alaska SeaLife Center (ASLC): The ASLC Wildlife Response Program is an important part of the Center’s commitment to generate and share scientific knowledge to promote understanding and stewardship of Alaska’s marine ecosystem. The main goal of the Wildlife Response Program is to learn from live and dead stranded animals to better understand wild populations and maintain capacity to respond to natural or manmade disasters. The program responds to live and dead marine wildlife that has been abandoned, stranded, or injured throughout Alaska. The ASLC is the only institution authorized to rehabilitate live stranded marine mammals in the state. They operate under permits and agreements issued by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and US Fish & Wildlife Service (USFWS). ASLC plays a critical role in responding to oil spills or other unusual events. In addition to covering the live animal response and care during the ‘busy’ season, May to September, ASLC trains partners for disaster response, and remains ready year-round to provide basic animal care for oil-affected animals and to deploy a mobile treatment and rehabilitation enclosure. In addition, the ASLC’s Science Program is involved in a number of research networks that monitor the health of local ecosystems. ASLC researchers also study the impacts of hydrocarbons and changing environments on a number of marine species. To learn more about the Alaska SeaLife Center and its programs, visit www.alaskasealife.org

2. Alaska Clean Seas (ACS): ACS is a not-for-profit cooperative that provides training and equipment for oil spill response on the North Slope and Alaska’s outer continental shelf. The members who join ACS are companies who want to transport,  produce or explore for oil in these Arctic areas. Some ACS staff work onsite with the oil companies to provide immediate response to spills. This not-for-profit maintains large quantities of equipment including booms, barges, storage tanks, skimmers, aerial ignition systems for in-situ burning, wildlife stabilization supplies, communications equipment and more. This equipment is available to member companies in the event of a spill. They also coordinate trainings that provide personnel with skills specific to cleaning up oil in ice.

PHOTO CREDIT: Alaska SeaLife Center. Oiled wildlife response workshop at the Alaska SeaLife Center. 

HOW DOES INDUSTRY PREPARE FOR AND RESPOND TO AN OIL SPILL?

To avoid impacts on the environment, profit margin, market share, public relations and governmental penalties, the oil industry is constantly preparing to respond in the case of a spill.

The first priority of industry is to research and implement technologies that prevent spills from happening. Some of these technologies and techniques developed by the oil companies are held as proprietary trade secrets. However, in 2012, nine energy companies (BP, Chevron, ConocoPhillips, Eni, ExxonMobil, North Caspian Oil Company, Royal Dutch Shell, Statoil and Total) established the Arctic Response Technology Oil Spill Preparedness – Joint Industry Program (JIP) to make advances on oil spill response technologies and to understand effects of oil on Arctic marine environments.

Industry is the first responder to an incident in Alaska. For spills on marine waters, the Coast Guard is the first federal agency to respond. In Arctic Alaska, for emergency support, the closest Coast Guard air station is on Kodiak Island, about 900 miles away from the North Slope. The Command and Response Center is in Anchorage, still over 600 miles away. The remoteness of Arctic waters requires industry to have crews and equipment ready on site.

Several industries have researched techniques for a quick response to oil spills in the Arctic and have trained employees on site for oil spill cleanup. Some technology used for clean-up of offshore spills includes booms to corral oil, in-situ burning to burn off most of the oil, and chemical dispersants to diffuse oil.

PHOTO CREDIT: NOAA

Multi-year sea ice has covered the greater part of the Arctic Ocean for at least hundreds of thousands of years. This old sea ice could only be replaced after thousands of years of accumulation and pressure. Ice reflects sunlight while the darker water that is being uncovered absorbs it. As the ice melts, the melting process accelerates as the water absorbs more of the sun’s energy. Sea ice is diminishing so rapidly that even the most optimistic reports expect an ice free summer within decades. (It is important to understand that the first ice-free summer means the first winter with a layer of only new or yearling ice.)

No matter where your audience is from, you can find a way to connect them to the Arctic and its recent changes. The changing Arctic has impacts on a global scale. Ice melting from the Arctic Ocean and land glaciers on Greenland contributes to sea level rise. Considering about 10% of the world’s population lives within 30ft of sea level (including many cities), even a minor rise in water level could have large impacts (http://climate.nasa.gov/news/958). The changing temperature in the Arctic might also be affecting temperatures in sub-Arctic regions. What is known as the Warm Arctic – Cold Continent Pattern shows a frequent correlation between a warmer Arctic and increased winter weather patterns in areas such as northern Europe, eastern Asia and eastern North America. (http://www.arctic.noaa.gov/future/warm_arctic_cold_continent.html).

In addition to global impacts, there are several local impacts. Locations for communities in Arctic Alaska might literally disappear as sea level rises, permafrost melts, and the lack of sea ice leads to greater coastal erosion. Many plants and animals might lose have the habitat they need to survive. Already living in an extreme environment, some species may have a lesser ability to adapt to change, especially at a rate comparable to the environmental changes currently in motion. This could decrease biodiversity, either through species extinction or population shifts. This possible change in species’ richness could be detrimental to the balance of the Arctic ecosystem and to subsistence lifestyles.

Our individual use of oil, as one out of over 7 billion people, contributes to CO2 emissions and global climate change. It also creates the demand for more oil exploration and the potential for oil spills during drilling and increased transportation through opening Arctic passageways. We can all play our part by making informed decisions about the Arctic and paying attention to how the Arctic is changing. Keep up-to-date on the research and initiatives of government agencies, non-profits and industry members. Learn more about the Arctic now, so you can understand and follow changes to come. The Arctic might be a model for how climate change will continue to affect the rest of the country in the future.

If you are interested in how our CO2 emissions affect oceans beyond the Arctic, check out the Ocean Acidification module. If you are interested in ways we can reduce our emissions, go through the Energy and Climate Literacy module.

PHOTO CREDIT: NASA: http://www.nasa.gov/images/content/275052main_seaicestill1_HI.jpg Summer ice in the Arctic, 2008.